Abbreviations
Abbreviations (1)
In general, when you write formal English, it is better not to use abbreviations. In academic writing, it is better practice to say ‘for example’ than ‘e.g.’, ‘and so forth’ than ‘etc.’ and ‘that is’ or ‘in other words’. (In footnotes, abbreviations are usual – often of Latin words or phrases. See abbreviations (2) – academic, Latin.) Think of them as on a par with contractions – don’t use either in acad. wr.
Abbreviations (2) – academic, (Latin)
Although abbreviations are frowned on in the text of academic writing, one exception has always been made. The use of Latin, the traditional language of scholarship in Europe, is still seen as being of higher prestige than mere English. Footnotes are often sprinkled with italicised abbreviations which do not relate to any modern English words, such as cf., etc. and q.v. The following table contains a list of some of the commoner ones, with the beginnings of an explanation for those who do not understand Latin.
| Abbreviation | Latin word(s) | English meaning | Notes | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ad lib. | ad libitum | at pleasure, as you want | mostly used in Music: ‘make it up [to fit]’ | |
| A.D. | Anno Domini | in the year of Our Lord (after Jesus’ birth) | traditional Christian form of ‘Common Era’ q.v. | |
| cf. | confer | bring together; compare | . | |
| cp. | compare | compare | . | |
| ead. | eadem | the same (woman) | Rarely used. Feminine form of idem | |
| et al. | et alia (or et alii) | and [the] others | (2 words; only 1 full stop) | |
| etc. | et cetera | and the rest | 1 word – etcetera – in English | |
| et seq. | et sequentes | and [the] following | 2 words; 1 full stop | |
| ibid. | ibidem | in the same place | i.e. this reference is to the same book as the last reference | |
| id. | idem | the same [author] | properly, a male | |
| inf. | infra | below | ‘later in the text’ | |
| loc. cit. | loco citato | at the place quoted | i.e. the same place as the last reference: same text and same page. | |
| n.b. | nota bene | note well; take note | . | |
| op. cit. | opere citato | in the work cited | i.e. in the same text, not necessarily the same page. | |
| p. a. | per annum | per year, annual | . | |
| p.d. | per diem | per day, daily | . | |
| p. p. | per procurationem | on behalf of | used in letters signed (e.g. by secretary) in the writer’s absence | |
| passim | passim | scattered around | ‘to be found in many places in this book’ | |
| q.v. | quod vide | which see | i.e. ‘look it up’ | |
| s.v. | sub voce | under the word ( literally ‘voice’) | ‘look in the dictionary under this headword’ | |
| sup. | Supra | above | ‘previously in this text’ | |
| v. | Vide or videte | see | . | |
| viz. | Videlicet | namely | ‘in other words’ |
Extra
There is also a group of abbreviations for the Latin names of some institutions, mostly Universities and Bishoprics. These are not much used these days; but you may see them in older academic books and journals. (In the days when the élite spoke Latin, and wanted to preserve an air of superiority over the rest, this was a convenient way of giving themselves an air of learning and mystery, and therefore of importance. Less prejudicially, perhaps, the habit is a hangover from when official documents were normally written in Latin. The Latin was often quite bad. So when the scribes had to name a place, they often half-invented a strange name for the area.) The authors of academic books often gave their qualifications as, for example M.A. Oxon. (indicating that they had graduated from Oxford). It was traditional for Bishops of the Church of England to sign documents with a cross and the abbreviation of the Latin name for the diocese. For example,  Cantuar. (or more familiarly  [Christian – or personal – name] Cantuar.) at the end of a letter meant that it had been signed by the Archbishop of Canterbury. Some of the abbreviations have been used for the names of English countries, in addresses , gazetteer entries, and so on – Hants. is used for Hampshire, and Northants for Northampton.
